Article 15A high court comprises a president and the necessary number of judges.

Article 16A high court has jurisdiction over the following matters:

Article 17Beyond what is provided for in this Act, a high court has powers that are specially provided for by other laws.

Article 18(1)A high court handles cases through a panel of judges; provided, however, that any special provisions provided for in other laws regarding matters other than proceedings and judgments to be made by the court apply.

(2)The number of judges of a panel referred to in the preceding paragraph is three, one of whom is the presiding judge; provided, however, that the number of judges is five in the cases referred to in Article 16, item (iv).

Article 19(1)A high court may have a judge of a district court or a family court within its jurisdictional district serve as a judge of the high court when there is urgent necessity for the conduct of judicial proceedings.

(2)If there are special circumstances that make it impossible to meet the urgent necessity of the high court pursuant to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the Supreme Court may have a judge of another high court or a judge of a district court or family court within the district over which that other high court has jurisdiction to serve as a judge of the first-mentioned high court.

Article 20(1)A high court conducts its judicial administration affairs, through deliberations of the judicial assembly, under the general supervision of the president of the high court.

(2)The judicial assembly of a high court comprises all judges belonging to the high court, and the president of the high court is the chairperson thereof.

Article 21A high court has a secretariat, which handles administrative affairs of the court.

Article 22(1)The Supreme Court may establish branches of a high court within the jurisdictional district of the high court, and have them perform a part of the functions of the high court.

(2)The Supreme Court designates judges to serve at the branches of a high court.

Article 23A district court comprises the necessary number of judges and assistant judges.

Article 24A district court has jurisdiction over the following matters:

Article 25Beyond what is provided for in this Act, a district court has powers specially provided for by other laws, and also powers over matters that are provided for by other laws as falling under the jurisdiction of the district court but not of other courts.

Article 26(1)A district court handles cases through a single judge, except for the cases prescribed in paragraph (2).

(2)The following cases are handled by a panel of judges; provided, however, that any special provisions provided for in other laws with respect to matters other than proceedings and judgments to be made by the court apply:

(3)The number of judges of a panel referred to in the preceding paragraph is three, one of whom is the presiding judge.

Article 27(1)An assistant judge may not give judgments alone unless otherwise specially provided for by other laws.

(2)Two or more assistant judges may not participate in a single panel at a same time, nor may any assistant judge be a presiding judge.

Article 28(1)If there is an urgent necessity in performing judicial proceedings in a district court, the high court with jurisdiction over the location of the district court may have a judge of another district court or family court within the district or a judge of the high court perform the duties of a judge of the district court.

(2)If there are special circumstances in which the urgent necessity of a district court cannot be satisfied pursuant to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the Supreme Court may have a judge of a district court or a family court within a jurisdiction other than that of the high court with jurisdiction over the location of the first-mentioned district court or a judge of that high court perform the duties of a judge of the district court.

Article 29(1)The Supreme Court appoints one judge from a district court as the president of the district court.

(2)A district court conducts its judicial administration, through deliberations of the judicial assembly, under the general supervision of the president of the district court.

(3)The judicial assembly of a district court comprises all of the judges of the district court, and the president of the district court presides over it.

Article 30A district court has a secretariat, which handles administrative affairs of the court.

Article 31(1)The Supreme Court may establish branches and local offices of a district court within the jurisdiction of the district court, and have them perform part of the functions of the district court.

(2)The Supreme Court designates judges to serve at the branches of a district court.

Article 31-2A family court comprises the necessary number of judges and assistant judges.

Article 31-3(1)A family court has power over the following matters:

(2)Beyond what is provided for in this Act, a family court has powers specially provided for by other laws.

Article 31-4(1)When conducting a trial or decision or giving a judicial decision, a family court hears cases through a single judge, except for the cases prescribed in the following paragraph.

(2)The cases set forth in the following items are heard by a panel of judges; provided, however, that any special provisions in other laws regarding other matters apply, except with respect to rulings to close a trial or decision as well as hearing or giving judicial decisions in a court room:

(3)The number of judges of a panel referred to in the preceding paragraph is three, one of whom is the presiding judge.

Article 31-5The provisions of Articles 27 through 31 apply mutatis mutandis to family courts.

Article 32A summary court has the necessary number of judges.

Article 33(1)A summary court has jurisdiction of the first instance over the following matters:

(2)A summary court may not impose imprisonment or a heavier penalty; provided, however, that a summary court may impose imprisonment for period not more than three years with respect to cases of crimes set forth in Article 130 of the Criminal Code or attempts at those crimes, crimes set forth in Article 186 of the same Code, crimes set forth in Article 235 of the same Code or attempts at those crimes, crimes set forth in Articles 252, 254, or 256 of the same Code, crimes set forth in Articles 31 through 33 of the Secondhand Articles Dealer Act (Act No. 108 or 1949), or crimes set forth in Articles 30 through 32 of the Pawnbroker Business Act (Act No. 158 of 1950), or with respect to cases in which the aforementioned crimes and other crimes are to be subject to penalties for the aforementioned crimes in accordance with the provisions of Article 54, paragraph (1) of the Criminal Code.

(3)When a summary court finds it appropriate to impose a penalty heavier than the limits prescribed in the preceding paragraph, the summary court must transfer the case to a district court pursuant to the provisions of procedural laws.

Article 34Beyond what is provided for in this Act, a summary court has powers specially provided for by other laws.

Article 35A summary court handles cases through a single judge.

Article 36(1)When there is an urgent necessity in conducting judicial proceedings in a summary court, the district court with jurisdiction over the location of the summary court may have a judge of another summary court within the same territory or of the district court serve as a judge of the former summary court.

(2)If there are special circumstances in which the urgent necessity of the summary court cannot be satisfied pursuant to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the high court with jurisdiction over the location of the summary court may have a judge, other than the judges prescribed in the same paragraph, of a summary court or a district court within the jurisdiction of the high court perform the duties of a judge of the summary court concerned.

Article 37When a summary court consists of one judge, the judicial administration affairs of the summary court are administered by the judge, and when there are two or more judges, by one of them as designated by the Supreme Court.

Article 38If special circumstances make it impossible to perform affairs at a summary court within the jurisdiction of a district court, the district court may have another summary court within that jurisdiction perform all or part of those affairs.

Article 39(1)The Emperor appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet.

(2)Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Cabinet.

(3)The Emperor approves the appointment and removal of justices of the Supreme Court.

(4)The appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and of justices of the Supreme Court is reviewed by the people pursuant to laws concerning national referendums.

Article 40(1)The Cabinet appoints presidents of high courts, judges, assistant judges, and judges of summary courts from a list of persons nominated by the Supreme Court.

(2)The Emperor approves the appointment and removal of presidents of high courts.

(3)Judges referred to in paragraph (1) are regarded as having completed their terms of office when ten years elapse after their appointment to office, and may be reappointed.

Article 41(1)Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed from persons with insight and extensive knowledge of law, who are not less than forty years old, at least ten of whom must be persons who have held one or two of the positions set forth in item (i) or (ii) for not less than ten years, or one or more of the positions set forth in the following items for a total period of twenty years or more:

(2)For the purpose of the application of the provisions of the preceding paragraph, if a person has held a position referred to in item (i) or (ii) of the preceding paragraph for not less than five years, or one or more of the positions referred to in items (i) through (vi) of the preceding paragraph for not less than ten years, and has also held the position of assistant judge, judicial research official, Secretary General of the Supreme Court, court administrative official, professor of the Legal Training and Research Institute, professor of the Training and Research Institute for Court Officials, Administrative Vice-Minister of the Ministry of Justice, administrative official of the Ministry of Justice, or law instructor of the Ministry of Justice, that position also held is deemed to be one of those referred to in items (iii) through (vi) of the preceding paragraph.

(3)For the purpose of the application of the provisions of the preceding two paragraphs, the period of service in the positions listed in paragraph (1), items (iii) through (v) and in the preceding paragraph is counted only from the completion of training as a legal apprentice.

(4)When a person has held a position as a professor of law or associate professor of law at a university referred to in paragraph (1), item (vi) for three years or more, and also has held a position as a summary court judge, public prosecutor (excluding an assistant prosecutor), or attorney, the provisions of the preceding paragraph do not apply with respect to the period of service in the latter position.

Article 42(1)The president of high courts and judges are appointed from among persons who have held one or more of the following positions for a total period of ten years or longer:

(2)For the purpose of the application of the provisions of the preceding paragraph, a person who has held one or more of the positions referred to in the items of the paragraph for more than three years and has also held a position as a court administrative official, administrative official of the Ministry of Justice, or law instructor is deemed as having held the positions set forth in the items of the paragraph.

(3)For the purpose of the application of the provisions of the preceding two paragraphs, the period of service in the positions set forth in paragraph (1), items (ii) through (v) and in the preceding paragraph is counted only from the completion of training as a legal apprentice.

(4)When a person held a position as a professor of law or associate professor of law at a university referred to in paragraph (1), item (vi) of the preceding Article for three years or more, and then served as a judge of a summary court, public prosecutor (excluding an assistant prosecutor), or attorney, the provisions of the preceding paragraph do not apply to the period of the service. When a person has been appointed judge of a summary court, or public prosecutor without having completed the training as a legal apprentice, the same applies to the person's period of service as the judge of a summary court, public prosecutor (excluding an assistant prosecutor), or attorney after the person passed the examination prescribed in Article 66.

Article 43Assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed the training as legal apprentices.

Article 44(1)Judges of a summary court are appointed from those who have been the president or a judge of a high court, or who have held one or more of the positions referred to in the following items for a total period of three years or more:

(2)For the purpose of the application of the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the period of service in the positions listed in items (ii) through (iv) of the paragraph is counted only from the completion of the training as a legal apprentice.

(3)When a person has been appointed as a public prosecutor without having completed the training as a legal apprentice, the provisions of the preceding paragraph do not apply to the person's period of service as a public prosecutor (excluding an assistant prosecutor) or attorney after the person passed the examination referred to in Article 66.

Article 45(1)A person who has been engaged in judicial affairs for many years, or who otherwise possesses the knowledge and experience necessary for performing the duties of a summary court judge may be appointed as a summary court judge by the selection committee of the summary court through the selection process even if they do not fall within the categories prescribed in paragraph (1) of the preceding Article.

(2)Rules and regulations relating to the selection committee for summary court judges are provided for by the Supreme Court.

Article 46In addition to those persons who are disqualified from appointment as ordinary government officials pursuant to the provisions of other laws, a person who falls under any of the following categories may not be appointed as a judge:

Article 47Judges of lower courts are assigned to positions by the Supreme Court.

Article 48A judge is not to be removed, transferred, or suspended from performing the judge's job, and the salary of the judge is not to be reduced, against the judge's will, except in cases in accordance with the provisions of laws concerning public impeachment or national referendums, or cases where the judge is declared mentally or physically incompetent to perform duties pursuant to the separate provisions of laws.

Article 49If a judge violates official duties or neglects duties, or behaves disgracefully, the judge is subject to disciplinary action by judicial decisions pursuant to the separate provisions of laws.

Article 50Justices of the Supreme Court retire upon the attainment of 70 years of age. Judges of a high court, district court, or family court retire upon the attainment of 65 years of age. Judges of summary courts retire upon the attainment of 70 years of age.

Article 51The compensation received by judges is provided for separately by law.

Article 52Judges may not engage in any of the following acts while in office:

Article 53(1)In the Supreme Court, there is one Secretary General of the Supreme Court.

(2)The Secretary General of the Supreme Court, under the supervision of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, administers the affairs of the General Secretariat of the Supreme Court, and directs and supervises officials of the Secretariat.

Article 54(1)In the Supreme Court, there is one secretary to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and fourteen secretaries to justices of the Supreme Court.

(2)The secretary to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and secretaries to Justices of the Supreme Court administer confidential affairs, as ordered by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the justices of the Supreme Court, respectively.

Article 55(1)In the Supreme Court, there are professors of the Legal Training and Research Institute.

(2)Professors of the Legal Training and Research Institute, under the direction of their supervisors, take charge of guiding research and training for judges in the Legal Training and Research Institute and education for legal apprentices.

Article 56(1)In the Supreme Court, there is the President of the Legal Training and Research Institute, who is assigned to the position by the Supreme Court from among professors of the Legal Training and Research Institute.

(2)The President of the Legal Training and Research Institute, under the supervision of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, administers the affairs of the institute, and directs and supervises the officials of the institute.

Article 56-2(1)In the Supreme Court, there are professors of the Training and Research Institute for Court Officials.

(2)Professors of the Training and Research Institute for Court Officials, under the direction of their supervisors, take charge of guiding research and training in the Training and Research Institute for Court Officials for court clerks, family court investigating officers, and other court officials except for judges.

Article 56-3(1)In the Supreme Court, there is the President of the Training and Research Institute for Court Officials, who is assigned to the position by the Supreme Court from among professors of the Training and Research Institute for Court Officials.

(2)The President of the Training and Research Institute for Court Officials, under the supervision of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, administers the affairs of the Training and Research Institute for Court Officials, and directs and supervises the officials thereof.

Article 56-4(1)In the Supreme Court, there is the Director of the Supreme Court Library, who is appointed from among court officials.

(2)The Director of the Supreme Court Library, under the supervision of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, administers the affairs of the Supreme Court Library, and directs and supervises the officials thereof.

(3)The provisions referred to in the preceding two paragraphs do not preclude the application of the provisions of the National Diet Library Act.

Article 56-5(1)In each high court, there is one secretary to the president of the high court.

(2)The secretary to a president of a high court administers confidential affairs, as ordered by the presidents of the high court.

Article 57(1)In the Supreme Court, each high court, and each district court, there are judicial research officials.

(2)Judicial research officials conduct the research necessary for proceedings and deciding cases (limited to cases concerning intellectual property or tax in a district court), and other duties provided for by other laws, as ordered by judges.

Article 58(1)In each court, there are court administrative officials.

(2)Court administrative officials administer the affairs of courts, as ordered by their superiors.

Article 59(1)In each high court, district court, and family court, there is a director-general of secretariat ,who is assigned to the position by the Supreme Court from among court administrative officials.

(2)The director-general of secretariat of a high court, district court, or family court administers the affairs of the secretariat, and directs and supervises the staff thereof, under the supervision of the president of the respective high court, district court, or family court.

Article 60(1)In each court, there are court clerks.

(2)A court clerk prepares and keeps records and other documents concerning cases of the court, and conducts other affairs as provided for by other laws.

(3)In addition to conducting the affairs under the preceding paragraph, a court clerk assists the judges in researching laws, regulations and judicial precedents, as well as other necessary matters, as ordered by the judges, in relation to the cases of the court.

(4)In performing duties, a court clerk complies with judges' orders.

(5)If a court clerk receives an order from a judge with respect to the preparation or alteration of a transcript of an oral statement or of other documents, and the court clerk finds that the preparation or alteration is not justifiable, the clerk may attach the clerk's own opinion in writing.

Article 60-2(1)In each court, there are court stenographers.

(2)A court stenographer takes shorthand notes concerning the cases of the court, and conduct affairs related thereto.

(3)In performing duties, a court stenographer complies with judges' orders.

Article 61(1)In each court, there are technical officials.

(2)A technical official of a court conducts technical affairs, as ordered by the official's superior.

Article 61-2(1)In each family court and high court, there are family court investigating officers.

(2)A family court investigating officer in a family court conducts necessary research for the adjudication and conciliation referred to in Article 31-3, paragraph (1), item (i), for the judicial decisions referred to in item (ii) of the same paragraph (limited to judicial decisions related to the incidental dispositions referred to in Article 32, paragraph (1) of the Personal Status Litigation Act and judicial decisions on designation of persons with parental authority referred to in paragraph (3) of the same Article (hereinafter referred to as "judicial decision on incidental dispositions" in this paragraph)), and for the trails and decisions referred to in Article 31-3, paragraph (1), item (iii), and any other affairs prescribed by other laws; and a family court investigating officer in a high court conducts the necessary research for the proceedings for appeals against the decisions referred to in item (i) of the same paragraph, and for the proceedings of an appeal trial at the court of second instance pertaining to a judicial decision for an incidental disposition, and any other affairs prescribed by other laws.

(3)The Supreme Court may appoint from among family court investigating officers a Chief Family Court Investigating Officer, who is assigned the duty of supervising research affairs and conducting liaison and other functions with relevant governmental agencies and other agencies.

(4)In performing duties, a family court investigating officer complies with judges' orders.

Article 61-3(1)In each family court, there are assistant family court investigating officers.

(2)An assistant family court investigating officer helps family court investigating officers perform their affairs, as ordered by their superiors.

Article 62(1)In each district court, there are court execution officers.

(2)Qualifications necessary for appointment as a court execution officer are prescribed by the Supreme Court.

(3)A court execution officer manages the execution of judicial decisions, the service of documents issued by the court, and other affairs as provided for by other laws.

(4)A court execution officer receives a commission. If the commission does not amount to a certain sum, the officer receives a subsidy from the national treasury.

Article 63(1)In each court, there are bailiffs.

(2)A bailiff conducts court duties as ordered by judges and other affairs as determined by the Supreme Court.

(3)When a court is unable to use a court execution officer, it may use a bailiff for the service of documents in the district of the court.

Article 64The appointment and dismissal of court officials other than judges are made by the Supreme Court, a high court, a district court, or a family court as determined by the Supreme Court.

Article 65The courts where judicial research officials, court administrative officials (except director-general of secretariats), court clerks, court stenographers, family court investigating officers, assistant family court investigating officers, court execution officers, and technical officials of the court are to work are designated by the Supreme Court, a high court, a district court, or a family court as determined by the Supreme Court.

Article 65-2Beyond what is provided for by this Act, matters concerning court officials other than judges are provided for separately by law.

Article 66(1)A legal apprentice is appointed by the Supreme Court from among those who have passed the bar examination.

(2)Matters concerning the examination referred to in the preceding paragraph are provided for separately by law.

Article 67(1)Legal apprentices complete their courses upon passing an examination at the end of at least one year of training.

(2)During their term of training, legal apprentices must devote themselves to their training as prescribed by the Supreme Court.

(3)Beyond what is provided for in the preceding paragraph, matters concerning the training and examination referred to in paragraph (1) are determined by the Supreme Court.

Article 67-2(1)Legal apprentices receive a training benefit for the period prescribed by the Supreme Court as the period normally required for training.

(2)The types of training benefit are a basic benefit, housing benefit and transfer benefit.

(3)The amount of the basic benefit comprises the expenses necessary for legal apprentices' cost of living during the training period and is prescribed by the Supreme Court, taking into account their current situation and the fact that the legal apprentices must devote themselves to their training.

(4)A housing benefit is paid when the legal apprentice is personally paying rent (including usage fees; hereinafter the same applies in this paragraph) for rented housing (including a rented room; hereinafter the same applies in this paragraph) for the legal apprentice to live in (except when the apprentice's spouse owns the housing, or in other cases prescribed by the Supreme Court), and that amount is an amount prescribed by the Supreme Court within the scope of the expenses normally required for rent.

(5)When it is found necessary for a legal apprentice to change the apprentice's address or residence for the training, a transfer benefit is paid for the transfer, and the amount is an amount prescribed by the Supreme Court based on the distance of the transfer.

(6)Beyond what is provided for in the preceding paragraphs, the Supreme Court prescribes the necessary matters relating to the payment of the training benefit.

Article 67-3(1)The Supreme Court is to provide interest-free loans for funds to enable concentration on training (funds to ensure that a legal apprentice will be devoted to the training, and which are still needed even after payment of the training benefit; hereinafter the same applies in this Article) to legal apprentices, upon application, for a period prescribed by the Supreme Court as the period normally required for the training of legal apprentices.

(2)The amount of funds to enable concentration on training and the due date for repayment are prescribed by the Supreme Court.

(3)When it becomes difficult for a person who has received a loan for funds to enable concentration on training to repay the funds due to a disaster, injury, sickness or other unavoidable reasons, or if there are grounds prescribed by the Supreme Court as grounds making it financially difficult for such a person to repay the funds, the due date for repayment may be extended.In this case, the provisions of Article 26 of the Act on the Management of the Claims of the State (Act No. 114 of 1956) do not apply.

(4)When a person who has received a loan for funds to enable concentration on training is no longer able to return the funds due to death, or a mental or physical disability, the Supreme Court may waive the repayment of all or part of the funds.

(5)Beyond what is provided for in each of the preceding paragraphs, the Supreme Court prescribes the matters necessary for the loan and repayment of funds to enable concentration on training.

Article 68(1)If the Supreme Court finds that a legal apprentice receives poor grades or exhibits a mental or physical disorder, or finds other grounds prescribed by the Supreme Court as grounds making it difficult to continue with the training, the Supreme Court may dismiss the legal apprentice as prescribed by the Supreme Court.

(2)If the Supreme Court finds that the legal apprentice behaves disgracefully or finds other grounds prescribed by the Supreme Court as grounds involving delinquency not appropriate for a legal apprentice, the Supreme Court may dismiss the legal apprentice, order the suspension of the training, or issue an admonition as prescribed by the Supreme Court.

Article 69(1)Court sessions are held at courts or branches.

(2)When the Supreme Court finds it necessary, it may hold sessions of court at different places or cause a lower court to hold sessions at other places it designates, notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding paragraph.

Article 70In order to conduct a trial privately pursuant to the provisions of Article 82, paragraph (2) of the Constitution of Japan, a court must make a statement to that effect and also give the reason therefore, before ordering the public to leave the court. Before delivering a judgment, the court must cause the public to be admitted entry into the court again.

Article 71(1)The presiding judge or single judge who opens a session maintains order in the court.

(2)The presiding judge or judge who opens a session may order any person who interferes with the exercise of the duties of the court or who behaves improperly, to leave the court, and may issue other orders or take measures as necessary for the maintenance of order in the court.

Article 71-2(1)When finding it necessary for maintaining order in the court, the presiding judge or single judge who opens a session may request the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Commissioner or the chief of the relevant prefectural police to dispatch police officers. The request, if deemed especially necessary for maintaining order in the court, may be made prior to the opening of the session.

(2)The police officers who are dispatched at the request referred to in the preceding paragraph are directed by the presiding judge or single judge in order to maintain order during the judicial procedure.

Article 72(1)At times when the court exercises its duties outside the court room in accordance with the provisions of other laws, the presiding judge or single judge may order any person who interferes with the exercise of the duties of the court to leave the place where the court exercises its duties and may issue other necessary orders or take other necessary measures.

(2)The provisions of the preceding Article apply mutatis mutandis to the case under the preceding paragraph.

(3)The authority of the presiding judge set forth in the preceding two paragraphs is conferred upon a judge when the judge exercises duties outside the court room in accordance with the provisions of other laws.

Article 73A person who, in violation of an order referred to in Article 71 or the preceding Article, interferes with the exercise of the duties of a court or of a judge is subject to imprisonment for a term not more than one year or to a fine not more than 1000 yen.

Article 74In a court, the Japanese language is used.

Article 75(1)Deliberations of decisions in a panel are not disclosed; provided, however, that the presence of legal apprentices may be permitted.

(2)Deliberation is commenced and regulated by the presiding judge. Except as otherwise provided for in this Act, strict secrecy must be observed with respect to the proceedings of deliberations, the opinions of each judge, and the number of opinions constituting the majority and the minority.

Article 76Judges must express their opinions in deliberations.

Article 77(1)Except when the Supreme Court decides otherwise concerning Supreme Court decisions, decisions are rendered by a majority of opinions.

(2)If decisions are to be rendered by a majority opinion, and there are three or more different opinions with respect to the following matters, and none of them obtains the majority, the decisions are rendered in accordance with the respective opinions set forth below:

Article 78When a trial by a panel is expected to continue for a long time, one or more supplementary judges may attend the proceedings, and one or more judges of the panel become unable to take part in the proceedings, the supplementary judge or judges may, in the order determined in advance, join the panel to conduct proceedings and give judicial decisions in the place of the absent judge or judges; provided, however, that the number of supplementary judges does not exceed that of the judges of the panel.

Article 79The courts provide the necessary mutual assistance in the conduct of judicial proceedings.